Diary of Merer: Oldest Papyri and the Building of Giza

The Diary of Merer is a set of papyrus logbooks written around 2560 BC by Merer, an official who led a boat crew working for the pharaoh Khufu. Found in 2013 at Wadi al-Jarf on Egypt’s Red Sea coast, the papyri record the shipping of limestone to Giza for the Great Pyramid. They are the oldest inscribed papyri yet discovered and the only known eyewitness record of work on the pyramid.

The discovery at Wadi al-Jarf

Wadi al-Jarf lies on the western shore of the Gulf of Suez, well to the south of the modern city of Suez. In the Fourth Dynasty it was a harbour from which Egyptian expeditions sailed to Sinai to obtain copper and turquoise. Its remains include a stone jetty and a row of storage galleries cut into the hillside, where boats were kept between voyages.

A French and Egyptian mission led by the Egyptologist Pierre Tallet, with Gregory Marouard, began work there in 2011. In 2013 they found hundreds of papyrus fragments, including several large rolls, wedged between blocks at the entrance to the galleries. The papyri seem to have been left behind when the harbour was closed and sealed, probably soon after Khufu’s death.

Who was Merer?

Merer held the title of inspector, a mid-ranking post. He commanded a team of about 40 men, part of a larger work organisation. His team moved between jobs across Egypt, including expeditions to the Red Sea, which explains why his records ended up at Wadi al-Jarf.

The logbook gives each day a short entry in columns, recording where the crew was, what it did and where it spent the night. It is written in hieratic, the cursive script used for everyday documents, rather than in carved hieroglyphs.

What the logbook records

The best-preserved section covers several months in the late reign of Khufu, dated to the year after the 13th cattle count. During this time Merer’s crew sailed between the limestone quarries of Tura, on the east bank of the Nile near modern Cairo, and Giza on the west bank.

They loaded blocks of fine white limestone at Tura and carried them by boat along the Nile and through canals to a harbour basin near the pyramid. Each round trip took a few days, and the crew made two or three trips in a ten-day period. The fine Tura stone was used for the outer casing of the Great Pyramid of Giza, which the diary calls by its ancient name, Akhet-Khufu, “Horizon of Khufu”.

The diary also mentions Ankhhaf, a half-brother of Khufu, as the official in charge of the operation at the harbour of Giza. Ankhhaf is known from other sources, including a famous painted limestone bust found at Giza, which adds weight to the record.

Why the papyri matter for pyramid studies

For centuries ideas about pyramid building rested on ruins, later Greek writers and modern guesswork. The Diary of Merer is the first document written by someone who actually took part in the work. It shows a well-organised state using boats, canals and harbours to move heavy materials, with crews that were fed and supplied by the administration.

The papyri also support the evidence from the workers’ town and cemeteries at Giza, which shows that the pyramid was built by organised Egyptian labour rather than by slaves. Other documents from the same find include accounts of food rations such as bread and beer.

Myths and facts

Some accounts call the diary the full story of how the Great Pyramid was built. In fact it covers only part of the supply chain, the transport of stone, and says nothing about how the blocks were raised. It also does not settle debates over ramps or building methods.

Another claim is that these are the oldest papyri of any kind. A blank papyrus roll from the tomb of Hemaka, an official of the First Dynasty, at Saqqara is several centuries older. The Wadi al-Jarf papyri are the oldest found so far that carry writing.

Timeline

• c. 2560 BC: Merer’s crew ships Tura limestone to Giza in the late reign of Khufu.
• Shortly after Khufu’s reign: The harbour at Wadi al-Jarf is abandoned and the papyri are left at the galleries.
• 2011: Pierre Tallet’s mission begins excavating at Wadi al-Jarf.
• 2013: The papyri, including Merer’s logbook, are discovered.
• 2016: Parts of the papyri go on public display at the Egyptian Museum in Cairo.
• 2017: Tallet publishes the full scholarly edition of Merer’s journal.
• 2021: Tallet and Mark Lehner publish The Red Sea Scrolls for a general audience.

Why it matters

The Diary of Merer brings the people behind the pyramids into view through their own records. It turns the building of Khufu’s monument from a mystery into a story of boats, crews and schedules, and connects to other finds from the same reign such as the Khufu ship and the tomb of Hetepheres.