Polonnaruwa and Parakramabahu I: Sri Lanka's Medieval Capital

Polonnaruwa was the capital of Sri Lanka from the late 10th to the 13th century, and it reached its height under King Parakramabahu I, who ruled from 1153 to 1186. Parakramabahu reunited an island divided among rival princes, reformed the Buddhist monastic community and built reservoirs, palaces and temples on a grand scale. The ruins of his capital are now a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Background: from Anuradhapura to Polonnaruwa

For over a thousand years the capital of the island’s main kingdom had been Anuradhapura. Around 993 the Chola rulers of South India, who were then expanding across the Indian Ocean under kings such as Rajaraja I (see Brihadisvara Temple), conquered northern Sri Lanka and made Polonnaruwa their administrative centre.

In 1070 Vijayabahu I drove out the Cholas and kept Polonnaruwa as his capital. After his death, however, the island split among competing branches of the royal family, with separate rulers in the north (Rajarata), the south-west and the south-east (Ruhuna).

The rise of Parakramabahu

Parakramabahu was born around 1123 into a branch of the royal family and grew up in the south-western principality of Dakkhinadesa. The main source for his life is the Culavamsa, a Pali chronicle that continues the older Mahavamsa. It describes his education, ambition and careful preparation for war, though as a royal and Buddhist chronicle it praises him heavily.

After inheriting Dakkhinadesa, he built up his resources and attacked Gajabahu II, the ruler of Rajarata. Following years of fighting he took Polonnaruwa and was consecrated as king in 1153. A rebellion in Ruhuna in the following years was crushed, and by around 1160 he controlled the whole island.

Rule and reforms

Parakramabahu reorganised the administration and the army. In about 1165 he brought together the rival Buddhist monastic fraternities, expelling monks considered lax and creating a single unified order, an act the chronicle presents as one of his greatest achievements.

He also pursued an active foreign policy. Around 1164–1165 his forces raided the coast of Lower Burma after disputes with the Pagan kingdom over trade and the treatment of envoys. Later in his reign he intervened in a succession war in the Pandya kingdom of South India.

Irrigation works

Parakramabahu is best remembered for irrigation. The Culavamsa attributes to him the principle that not even a little water from the rain should flow into the sea without first being made useful to people. Whether or not he said these words, the idea sums up his programme.

The most famous work is the Parakrama Samudra (“Sea of Parakrama”), a reservoir beside Polonnaruwa formed by linking and enlarging older tanks behind a long embankment. It covers roughly 2,000–2,500 hectares and still irrigates farmland today. The chronicle credits him with building or restoring hundreds of other reservoirs and canals, although historians treat its exact figures with caution.

The monuments of Polonnaruwa

Parakramabahu enlarged and fortified the city with walls, gardens and a citadel. Among the surviving structures linked to his reign are:

• The royal palace: a large brick building whose thick walls suggest it once had several storeys.
• The council chamber: a stone platform with carved lions and columns where the king met his ministers.
• The Lankatilaka: a tall brick image house with a huge standing Buddha, now headless.
• The Gal Vihara: four Buddha images carved into a granite outcrop, including a reclining figure about 14 metres long.

Later kings, especially Nissanka Malla (r. 1187–1196), added more buildings, such as the Hatadage relic shrine.

Decline

Parakramabahu’s campaigns and buildings were expensive, and his successors struggled to hold the kingdom together. After his death in 1186 the throne passed through a series of short reigns. Around 1215 Magha, an invader from Kalinga in eastern India, seized Polonnaruwa and ruled harshly for decades.

The Sinhalese kings moved their capitals to the safer south-west, to Dambadeniya and later other centres. Polonnaruwa was briefly reoccupied in the 13th century but was effectively abandoned by around 1300, and the dry zone’s irrigation network slowly fell into disuse.

Timeline

• c. 993: The Cholas conquer northern Sri Lanka and govern from Polonnaruwa.
• 1070: Vijayabahu I expels the Cholas.
• c. 1123: Birth of Parakramabahu.
• 1153: Parakramabahu is consecrated king at Polonnaruwa.
• c. 1160: Rebellion in Ruhuna suppressed; the island is reunited.
• c. 1165: Unification of the Buddhist monastic order; raid on Lower Burma.
• 1186: Death of Parakramabahu I.
• c. 1215: Magha of Kalinga captures Polonnaruwa.
• 1982: The Ancient City of Polonnaruwa is inscribed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Why it matters

Parakramabahu I’s reign was the last great age of the dry-zone civilisation of Sri Lanka. His reservoirs show the scale of medieval Sri Lankan engineering, and the sculptures of the Gal Vihara rank among the finest Buddhist art in South Asia. Polonnaruwa’s fall after his death marks the shift of Sinhalese power to the south-west, which shaped the island’s later history.