Modern Era
On the Origin of Species (1859): Darwin's Theory of Evolution
Darwin's book convinced most scientists within two decades that species evolve, and made natural selection the central idea of modern biology.
Era · c. 1800 – 1945
Modern Era
Industry, science and global conflict: the century and a half that built the modern world.
Modern Era
Expedition of the Thousand (1860): Garibaldi Conquers Sicily
The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies collapsed; after plebiscites, Sicily and Naples were annexed to the Kingdom of Sardinia, soon the Kingdom of Italy.
Modern Era
Burning of the Old Summer Palace (1860): Yuanmingyuan Destroyed
The imperial gardens were looted by British and French troops and burned by the British, and the Qing court signed the Convention of Peking days later.
Modern Era
Emancipation of the Serfs (1861): Alexander II's Great Reform
About 23 million privately owned serfs gained personal freedom and land allotments, but on terms that left many peasants with less land and decades of redemption debt.
Modern Era
First Battle of Bull Run (1861): The Civil War's First Big Battle
Confederate victory; the Union army retreated in disorder to Washington, and both sides realised the war would be long.
Modern Era
Attack on Fort Sumter (1861): The First Shots of the Civil War
After 34 hours of bombardment the Union garrison surrendered and evacuated the fort on 14 April; Lincoln's call for 75,000 volunteers followed and four more states seceded.
Modern Era
Self-Strengthening Movement (1861-1895): Qing China Modernises
China gained arsenals, shipyards, mines, telegraphs and a modern navy, but defeat by Japan in 1894-1895 exposed the limits of reform without deeper institutional change.
Modern Era
Battle of Fredericksburg (1862): Disaster at Marye's Heights
Decisive Confederate victory; the Union Army of the Potomac lost about 12,600 men and withdrew across the Rappahannock River.
Modern Era
Homestead Act (1862): Free Land and the Settlement of the West
About 1.6 million homestead claims were eventually approved, transferring some 270 million acres of public land, roughly a tenth of the United States, to private owners.
Modern Era
Battle of Puebla (1862): The Real Story of Cinco de Mayo
Mexican victory; the French assault on the hill forts of Puebla was repulsed, delaying the French advance on Mexico City by about a year.
Modern Era
Battle of Shiloh (1862): Grant's Bloody Test in Tennessee
Union victory; after a near-defeat on the first day, Grant and Buell drove the Confederates back to Corinth, Mississippi, at a cost of about 23,700 casualties.
Modern Era
Battle of Antietam (1862): America's Bloodiest Single Day
Tactically inconclusive but a strategic Union success: Lee withdrew to Virginia, and Lincoln issued the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation five days later.